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History of the
Clans
Scottish clans (from Old Gaelic clann, children), give a sense
of identity and shared descent to people in Scotland and to their relations
throughout the world, with a formal structure of Clan Chiefs officially
registered with the court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms which controls the
heraldry and Coat of Arms. Each clan has its own tartan patterns, usually dating
to the 19th century, and members of the clan may wear kilts, skirts, sashes,
ties, scarves, or other items of clothing made of the appropriate tartan as a
badge of membership and as a uniform where appropriate.
Clans identify with geographical areas originally controlled by the Chiefs,
usually with an ancestral castle or manor, and clan gatherings form a regular
part of the social scene.
Origins of the clans
The word clann in Gaelic means children of the family. Each clan was a large
group of related people, theoretically an extended family, supposedly descended
from one progenitor and all owing allegiance to the patriarchal clan chief. It
also included a large group of loosely-related septs – related families - all of
whom looked to the clan chief as their head and their protector.
Some clans such as Clan Campbell and Clan Donald claim ancient Celtic
mythological progenitors mentioned in the Fenian cycle, with a group including
Clan MacSween, Clan Lamont, Clan Erinvines, Clan MacEwen, Clan MacLachlan, and
MacNeil tracing their ancestry back to the 5th century High King of Ireland.
Others such as Clan MacAulay, Clan MacKinnon and Clan MacGregor claim descent
from the Scots King Kenneth Mac Alpin who made himself King of the Picts in 843,
founding the Kingdom called after the name of the land Alba (modern-day
Scotland). The MacDonalds and MacDougalls claim descent from Somerled, the
half-Gael/half-Norse-Manx Lord of the Isles in the mid-11th century.
Though the clans had always been a feature of pre-Christian Ireland and
Scotland, they first emerged into English consciousness from the turmoil of the
12th and 13th centuries when the Scottish crown pacified northern rebellions and
re-conquered areas taken by the Norse, and after the fall of Macbeth when the
crown became increasingly Anglo-Norman. This turmoil created opportunities for
Norse, Scottish and English warlords and their kin to dominate areas, and the
instability of the Wars of Scottish Independence brought in warlords with
Anglo-Norman, Anglian and Flemish ancestry, founding clans such as the Camerons,
Chisholms, Menzies and Grants.
The Highland clan system
Inheritance and authority
The Scottish Highland clan system incorporated the Celtic/Norse traditions of
heritage as well as Norman Feudal society. Chieftains and petty kings under the
suzerainty of a High King ruled Gaelic Alba, with all such offices being filled
through election by an assembly. Usually the candidate was nominated by the
current office holder on the approach of death, and his heir-elect was known as
the tanist, from the Gaelic tànaiste, or second, with the system being known as
tanistry. This system combined a hereditary element with the consent of those
ruled, and while the succession in clans later followed the feudal rule of
primogeniture, the concept of authority coming from the clan continued.
Thus the collective heritage of the clan, the duthchas, gave the right to settle
the land to which the chiefs and leading gentry provided protection and
authority as trustees for the people. This was combined with the complementary
concept of oighreachd where the chieftain's authority came from charters granted
by the feudal Scottish crown, where individual heritage was warranted. While
duthchas held precedence in the medieval period, the balance shifted as lowland
Scots law became increasingly important in shaping the structure of clanship.
Legal process
To settle criminal and civil disputes within clans both sides put their case to
an arbitration panel drawn from the leading gentry of the clan and presided over
by the chief. Similarly, in disputes between clans the chiefs served as
procurators (legal agents) for the disputants in their clan and put the case to
an arbitration panel of equal numbers of gentry from each clan presided over by
a neighbouring chief or landlord. There was no appeal from the decision which
awarded reparations, called assythment, to the wronged party and which was
recorded in a convenient Royal or Burgh court. This compensation took account of
the age, responsibilities and status of the victim as well as the nature of the
crime, and once paid precluded any further action for redress against the
perpetrator. To speed this process clans made standing provisions for
arbitration and regularly contracted bands of friendship between the clans which
had the force of law and were recorded in a convenient court.
Social ties
Fosterage and manrent were the most important forms of social bonding in the
clans. In fosterage, the chief's children were brought up by favoured members of
the leading clan gentry (traditionally the mother's brother or similar, i.e. in
another clan), whose children in turn were brought up by other favoured members
of the clan (again the mother's brother or the like - i.e. in another clan).
This brought about intense ties and reinforced inter-clan cohesion. Manrent was
a bond contracted by the heads of families looking to the chief for territorial
protection, though not living on the estates of the clan elite. These bonds were
reinforced by calps, death duties paid to the chief as a mark of personal
allegiance by the family when their head died, usually in the form of their best
cow or horse. Although calps were banned by Parliament in 1617, manrent
continued covertly to pay for protection.
Less durably, marriage alliances reinforced kinship between clans. These were
contracts involving the exchange of livestock, money and rent, tocher for the
bride and dowry for the groom.
Clan management
Payments of rents and calps from those living on clan estates and calps alone
from families living elsewhere were channelled through tacksmen. These lesser
gentry acted as estate managers, allocating the run-rig strips of land, lending
seed-corn and tools and arranging droving of cattle to the Lowlands for sale,
taking a minor share of the payments made to the clan nobility, the fine. They
had the important military role of mobilising the Clan Host, both when required
for warfare and more commonly as a large turn out of followers for weddings and
funerals, and traditionally in August for hunts which included sports for the
followers, the predecessors of the modern Highland games.
From the late 16th century the Scottish Privy Council, recognising the need for
co-operation, required clan leaders to provide bonds of surety for the conduct
of anyone on their territory and to regularly attend at Edinburgh, encouraging a
tendency to become absentee landlords. With an increase in droving, tacksmen
acquired the wealth to finance the gentry's debts secured against their estates,
hence acquiring the land. By the 1680s this led to the land in ownership largely
coinciding with the collective 'dutchas' for the first time. The tacksmen became
responsible for the bonds of surety leading to a decline in banditry and
feuding.
Disputes and disorder
Where the oighreachd, land owned by the clan elite or fine, did not match the
common heritage of the duthchas this led to territorial disputes and warfare.
The fine resented their clansmen paying rent to other landlords, while
acquisitive clans used disputes to expand their territories, and many clan
histories record ferocious long lasting feuding such as the Clan Gordon and the
Clan Forbes, which lasted for centuries and caused many deaths in both clans. On
the western seaboard clans became involved with the wars of the Irish Gaels
against the Tudor English, and a military caste called the buannachan developed,
seasonally fighting in Ireland as mercenaries and living off their clans as
minor gentry, but this was brought to an end with the Irish Plantations of James
VI of Scotland and I of England. During that century law increasingly settled
disputes, and the last feud leading to a battle was at Mulroy in Lochaber on
August 4 1688.
Reiving had been a rite of passage, the creach where young men took livestock
from neighbouring clans. By the 17th century this had declined and most reiving
was the spreidh where up to 10 men raided the adjoining Lowlands, the livestock
taken usually being recoverable on payment of tascal (information money) and
guarantee of no prosecution. Some clans offered the Lowlanders protection
against such raids, on terms not dissimilar to blackmail.
Although by the late 17th century disorder declined, reiving persisted with the
growth of cateran bands of up to 50 bandits, usually led by a renegade of the
gentry, who had thrown off the constraints of the clan system. As well as
preying off the clans, caterans acted as mercenaries for Lowland lairds pursuing
disputes amongst themselves.
Civil wars and Jacobitism
As the civil wars of the Three Kingdoms broke out in the early 17th century the
Covenanters were supported by the territorially ambitious Argyll Campbells and
House of Sutherland as well as some clans of the central Highlands opposed to
the Royalist House of Huntly. While some clans remained neutral, others led by
Montrose supported the Royalist cause, projecting their feudal obligations to
clan chiefs onto the Royal House of Stuart, resisting the demands of the
Covenanters for commitment and reacting to the ambitions of the larger clans. In
the Wars of 1644-47, the most prominent Royalist clan were Clan Donald led by
Alasdair MacColla.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Episcopalianism became widespread among
clans as it suited the hierarchical clan structure and encouraged obedience to
Royal authority, while some other clans were converted by Catholic missions. In
1682 James Duke of York, Charles' brother, instituted the Commission for
Pacifying the Highlands which worked in co-operation with the clan chiefs in
maintaining order as well as redressing Campbell acquisitiveness, and when he
became King James VII he retained popularity with many Highlanders. All these
factors contributed to continuing support for the Stuarts when James was deposed
by William of Orange in the "Glorious Revolution".
The support among many clans, their remoteness from authority and the ready
mobilisation of the clan hosts made the Highlands the starting point for the
Jacobite Risings. In Scottish Jacobite ideology the Highlander symbolised
patriotic purity as against the corruption of the Union, and as early as 1689
some Lowlanders wore "Highland habit" in the Jacobite army.
Decline of the Clan system
Successive Scottish governments had portrayed the clans as bandits needing
occasional military expeditions to keep them in check and extract taxes. As
Highlanders became associated with Jacobitism and rebellion the government made
repeated efforts to curb the clans, culminating with brutal repression after the
battle of Culloden. This followed in 1746 with the Act of Proscription, further
measures making restrictions on their ability to bear arms, traditional dress,
culture, and even music. The Heritable Jurisdictions Act removed the feudal
authority the Clan Chieftains had once enjoyed.
With the failure of Jacobitism the clan chiefs and gentry increasingly became
landlords, losing the traditional obligations of clanship. They were
incorporated into the British aristocracy, looking to the clan lands mainly to
provide them with a suitable income. From around 1725 clansmen had been
emigrating to America; both clan gentry looking to re-establish their lifestyle,
or as victims of raids on the Hebrides looking for cheap labour. Increasing
demand in Britain for cattle and sheep led to higher rents with surplus clan
population leaving in the mass migration later known as the Highland Clearances,
finally undermining the traditional clan system.
Clan membership, tartans and badges
The article Clans, Families and Septs by Sir Crispin Agnew of Lochnaw Baronet,
Queens Counsel, Rothesay Herald of Arms (i.e., one of the four most senior
members of the Lord Lyon's court), states that the terms clan and family are
interchangeable, and makes it clear that membership is determined by the chief
of the clan or family, who can accept or reject those who offer their
allegiance. Historically the clan was those living on the chief's territory,
though certain of his immediate family owed him allegiance wherever they lived.
With changes in clan boundaries or migration of families the clan could include
members with other surnames. A chief could add to his clan by adopting other
families, and also had the legal right to outlaw anyone from his clan, including
members of his own family. In modern terms a chief can accept whom he wants to,
or limit clan membership to those with particular surnames. Those who have the
chief's surname are deemed to be clan members, and anyone who offers allegiance
to the chief by joining his clan society or wearing his clan tartan is
considered a member unless disallowed by the chief, individually or by name
group. Many people nowadays wish to claim clan membership on their mother's
side, and while Sir Crispin does not mention this situation, there seems to be
no reason for them not to offer allegiance to the chief of their mother's clan.
Where clans included groups with other surnames these are often listed as septs,
but while the clan or family is a legally recognised group, sept lists have no
official authority and merely reflect an estimate of historical associations.
Official Clan tartans are authorised by the chief and registered by the Lord
Lyon, but there is no legal prohibition against wearing the "wrong" tartan.
Originally there appears to have been little association of tartans with
particular clans or areas, but the idea gained currency in the late 18th century
and in 1815 the Highland Society of London began the naming and registration of
"official" clan tartans, and gradually the original belted plaid was supplanted
by the modern tailored kilt. For more information see Tartan and Kilt.
A sign of allegiance to a clan is the wearing of its crest badge. In Scotland
only individuals, not clans, possess a heraldic Coats of arms. However, a
clansman or woman may wear a badge comprising the clan chief’s crest, encircled
with a strap and buckle bearing their chief’s motto or slogan. In principle
these badges should only be used with the permission of the clan chief and the
Lyon Court has intervened in cases where permission has been withheld.
For further information regarding clans, feel free to visit
the following sites:
http://www.scotlandsclans.com/
http://www.the-scottish-clans.com/
http://www.albanach.org/
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